AIRSPACE AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
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AIRSPACE AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
من طرف Ahmed Motamed الأربعاء مايو 28, 2008 11:48 am
هذا الموضوع جميل وشيق جدا
ويوضح علاقة المراقبة الجوية بالمجال الجوى
ارجو ان يستفيد منه الاعضاء الكرام
The National Airspace System (NAS) is a complex network of air navigation facilities, air traffic
control facilities, airports, technology, and appropriate rules and regulations. ATC uses highly
technical, intricate procedures to direct aircraft. This appendix only details areas of the NAS that
impact operations in the immediate vicinity of MSP (up to and including 3000 feet of altitude).
Detailed operational procedures unique to MSP are discussed in Chapters Four and Seven.
ويوضح علاقة المراقبة الجوية بالمجال الجوى
ارجو ان يستفيد منه الاعضاء الكرام
The National Airspace System (NAS) is a complex network of air navigation facilities, air traffic
control facilities, airports, technology, and appropriate rules and regulations. ATC uses highly
technical, intricate procedures to direct aircraft. This appendix only details areas of the NAS that
impact operations in the immediate vicinity of MSP (up to and including 3000 feet of altitude).
Detailed operational procedures unique to MSP are discussed in Chapters Four and Seven.
BACKGROUND
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established the FAA and made it responsible for the control
and use of navigable airspace within the United States. The FAA created the National Airspace
System (NAS) to protect persons and property on the ground, and to establish a safe and efficient
airspace environment for civil, commercial, and military aviation. The NAS is made up of a
network of air navigation facilities, air traffic control facilities, airports, technology, and
appropriate rules and regulations that are needed to operate the system. This appendix details the
various components of the NAS, and then describes how these components interact to ensure
safe and efficient air travel.
AIRSPACE
Aircraft flying in the United States are subject to varying degrees of control depending on their
operating rules, airspace type, and meteorological conditions. The airspace that aircraft operate
within is divided into many different blocks of airspace segregated by geography, altitudes, and
location. The control of aircraft operating in the airspace is exercised from a network of air
traffic control (ATC) facilities. The ATC system operates within a framework of laws and
regulations to provide for the safe operation of aircraft. Accuracy of communication and air
navigation is required to maintain the air traffic control system and use of Federal airways and
routes.
Section 4.2.3 discusses flight rules and weather conditions.
Airspace is broadly classified as either controlled or uncontrolled. Controlled airspace is
intended to ensure separation of IFR traffic from other aircraft, both IFR and VFR. It is
supported by ground-to-air communications, navigation aids, and air traffic services. Aircraft
operating within controlled airspace are subject to varying requirements for positive air traffic
control.
NAVIGATION SYSTEM
ATC is in contact with and navigational service is available to aircraft in all phases of flight –
departure, en route, and arrival. Several navigational systems are available, all comprising of
ground-based transmission facilities and receiving instruments on aircraft. Navigational aids
(NAVAIDS) often provide navigation to a broad area of airspace.
A non-directional beacon (NDB) is a general purpose, low-frequency radio beacon that transmits
a non-directional signal. An aircraft equipped with direction finding equipment can determine a
bearing to or from the radio beacon, and use this to navigate.
The most common and important NAVAID is the VHF omni-directional radio range (VOR)
station. The VOR is a ground-based NAVAID which transmits high frequency radio signals
(known as radials) 360 degrees in azimuth from the station. A pilot can select a specific radial
from a VOR, and use this to fly to or from another point. Two VORs can be used to triangulate
an aircraft’s position. A pilot can also use distance measuring equipment (DME) to measure an
aircraft’s distance from a properly-equipped VOR. Some VORs are also co-located with
TACAN (tactical air navigation equipment), which is used by the military. These installations
are known as VORTAC, and operate in the same way as a VOR station. VOR radials are often
used to define both low altitude (Victor) and high altitude (Jet) federal airways. They are also
sometimes used to direct aircraft into and out of airports.
Aircraft also use “fixes” for navigational purposes. A fix is a defined geographic point, with a
single five-letter name. It is known to both air traffic controllers and pilots, and is identified on
air navigation charts. Latitude/longitude designations and radials are used to define fixes. The
intersection of specific radials from two VORs, or a specific radial and a distance from DME
equipment are the two most common methods used to identify a fix location.
Satellite navigation, using the Global Positioning System (GPS), is intended to replace groundbased
NAVAIDS. GPS will become the primary NAVAID used by pilots and ATC. The GPS
equipment uses a database of fix locations. GPS determines the aircraft’s position, in latitude
and longitude, and computes a course between the aircraft’s position and a selected fix.
Additional information on GPS is contained in Appendix G.
NAVAIDS are also used to guide an aircraft for landing at an airport during the arrival portion of
flight. The procedures used with these NAVAIDS are known as Instrument Approach
Procedures, and are used to guide aircraft to a specific runway for landing in IMC. An
instrument approach procedure that uses VORs and NDBs as the primary NAVAID are known
as non-precision approaches, because they only provide horizontal (position) guidance and do
not provide exact altitude guidance. An Instrument Landing System (ILS) is known as a
precision approach, because it provides precision altitude guidance for an aircraft as it is guided
to the runway. It also has more precise horizontal (position) guidance than a VOR or NDB
system.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL FACILITIES
The FAA provides air traffic control service through a number of facilities and assigned areas of
air traffic control responsibility. The following provides a brief description of the different types
of air traffic control facilities.
Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)
The FAA has established Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC), known as Centers, in the
continental United States to control aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (IFR) within
controlled airspace and while in the en route phase of flight. ARTCCs also provide limited air
traffic service to VFR aircraft operating in controlled airspace. An ARTCC assigns specific
routes and altitudes along federal airways to maintain separation and orderly air traffic flow. The
ARTCC uses radio communication and long range radar with automatic tracking capability to
provide en route air traffic services. An ARTCC splits its airspace into sectors and assigns a
controller or team of controllers to each sector. As an aircraft travels through the ARTCC, one
sector hands off control to another. Each sector guides the aircraft using discrete radio
frequencies.
Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON)
The ARTCC delegates certain airspace to local terminal facilities, which assume responsibility
for the orderly flow of air traffic arriving and departing from major airports, such as MSP. These
facilities provide radar vectoring, sequencing, and separation of IFR aircraft. They also provide
air traffic service to aircraft operating from smaller airports within the TRACON’s boundaries,
and traffic advisories for VFR aircraft operating in the area.
TRACONs can be located at an ATCT or in close proximity to the airport. TRACON’s use radar
to guide aircraft, and therefore they do not have to be located at an airport facility. Like
ARTCCs, a TRACON’s airspace may also be divided into a number of different sectors to make
the workloads of air traffic controllers manageable.
Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT)
Traffic at busy airports is controlled by an ATCT. ATCTs are located at the airport and provide
local air traffic control, usually within five nautical miles of the airport. Air traffic controllers in
towers primarily use sight to track and control aircraft.
Large commercial airports, such as MSP, typically have several runways that can be used
simultaneously. As a result, these airports operate in a safe, systematic departure and arrival
configuration (or flow) that is based on the prevailing winds and the physical layout of the
runways. MSP typically operates in an east or west flow. If airports are in close proximity to
each other (such as MSP and St. Paul Downtown Airport, or Flying Cloud Airport), operations at
the airports must be able to smoothly interact. This requires extensive planning and coordination
between the air traffic control facilities, including ATCTs, TRACONs, and ARTCCs that operate
within an area.
Ahmed Motamed- مـــــــديـــــر
- عدد الرسائل : 123
العمر : 36
تاريخ التسجيل : 04/05/2008
رد: AIRSPACE AND AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
من طرف Ahmed Motamed الأربعاء مايو 28, 2008 11:48 am
PHASES OF FLIGHT
All of the components of the National Airspace System, including airports, navigational aids, air
traffic control, and aircraft must be able to interact so that aircraft can safely and efficiently
travel from one place to another. This appendix has, thus far, discussed the various components
of the NAS, but will now detail how these systems interact. An aircraft traveling from one place
to another goes through three phases of flight: departure (takeoff), en route (cruise), and arrival
(landing); during each of these phases, different components of the NAS are used. Noise
abatement procedures are also used at some airports, and are integrated with the ATC system and
routes assigned to aircraft.
Departure Phase
An aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan will receive an ATC clearance, specifying the air
routes and initial altitudes that are to be used on the flight. The clearance may come in the form
of a departure procedure (DP). A DP is a standardized ATC departure procedure, containing a
group of procedures that would otherwise be transmitted piece by piece, used at certain airports
to simplify clearance delivery procedures. As discussed earlier, many busy airports have a
systematic and coordinated arrival and departure flow. As a result, many aircraft may receive
the same clearance to depart from the airport and transition to the en route portion of their flight;
a DP permits the controller to relay this clearance simply and quickly without having to repeat
the information for every flight. The ATCT will transmit this clearance to the pilot, and will also
give clearance for the aircraft to taxi to the runway. The ATCT will also give clearance for the
aircraft to takeoff.
Shortly after takeoff, the aircraft is handed off to the TRACON. The TRACON acquires the
aircraft on radar, and the pilot switches radio frequencies. The TRACON controller will vector
the aircraft to follow a specific course or to avoid other air traffic, and will give it instructions to
climb to certain altitudes. The TRACON directs the aircraft to a specific departure gate, which is
a designated area of airspace where the aircraft is handed off to the ARTCC.
En Route Phase
By definition, the en route system of air traffic control is that part of the system devoted to
controlling IFR aircraft between the terminal area of origination and the terminal area of
destination. For this study, the term “en route system” includes all routes and procedures 3,000
feet and higher. This definition is consistent with the definition of airport traffic areas and
environmental review procedures. The “roof” of the airport traffic area is 3,000 feet above
ground level (AGL). FAA Order 1050.1D establishes 3,000 feet AGL as the altitude above
which changes in en route procedures, airport approach procedures and airport departure
procedures are normally categorically excluded from the requirement for an environmental
assessment (EA) or environmental impact statement (EIS).
The pilot of the aircraft will initially contact the ARTCC by switching to another discrete radio
frequency, and the ARTCC will detect the aircraft on its long-range radar. ARTCC will vector
and direct aircraft so that it is adequately separated from other air traffic, and will direct the
aircraft along its assigned route. The route will consist of a combination of VORs, airways,
fixes, and radar vectors. The ARTCC will also direct the aircraft to climb to its cruise altitude.
The aircraft will be handed off to different sectors and ARTCCs as it traverses along the route
towards its destination.
Arrival Phase
When the aircraft comes within a couple hundred miles of its destination, the ARTCC will direct
it to begin a descent to a specified lower altitude. The aircraft may be routed using a standard
terminal arrival route (STAR). A STAR is very similar to a DP; it contains a group of
procedures, including routes and fixes, to be used by the aircraft as it approaches the airport.
Like a DP, a STAR is intended to simplify clearance delivery procedures.
The ARTCC will direct the aircraft along a route (and to an arrival gate) used to funnel traffic
into a specific airport when using a given north, south, east, or west flow. The controllers at the
ARTCC merge aircraft along these routes, and provide sequencing and adequate separation from
other air traffic. They will then transfer control of the aircraft to the appropriate TRACON at the
arrival gate. This transfer is usually completed within approximately 20 nautical miles of the
destination airport.
After the TRACON controllers establish communication with the aircraft, they provide approach
control services by instructing the pilot to fly along specific routes, using fixes, NAVAIDS, and
vectors. During IMC conditions, the TRACON will also direct the aircraft to an instrument
approach for landing at the destination airport.
The TRACON will often route the aircraft to the airport using a local traffic pattern. The pattern
is used by aircraft operating to and from an airport, to ensure that all aircraft use similar
procedures and follow similar routes to and from the runways. If at all possible, aircraft should
land and takeoff into the prevailing wind. This reduces takeoff and landing distance, and also
helps to create an orderly traffic flow. The terminology used to describe the different legs of the
traffic pattern are based upon the leg position relative to the direction of the prevailing wind and
the runway. An aircraft taking off is flying into the wind, and hence the leg is known as the
“upwind” leg. An aircraft that is flying perpendicular to the wind, on the departure side of the
runway, is on the “crosswind” leg of the pattern. An aircraft flying parallel and towards the
arrival end of the runway is on the “downwind” leg. The “base” leg is also perpendicular to the
prevailing wind, and is intended as a “base” as the aircraft begins it approach for landing on the
runway. The last leg, when the aircraft is aligned with the runway for landing, is known as
“final.” For jet airline traffic, the traffic pattern is usually fairly “wide,” meaning it is flown
several miles away from the airport. During IMC conditions, the pattern flown may be very
wide, and pattern legs are used mainly to describe the aircraft’s relative position to the airport.
The TRACON hands the aircraft off to the airport’s ATCT when it is within approximately five
to 10 nautical miles of the airport, or when the ATCT has visual contact with the aircraft. The
ATCT gives the aircraft final clearance to land, and the aircraft safely completes it flights using
the various components of the NAS
All of the components of the National Airspace System, including airports, navigational aids, air
traffic control, and aircraft must be able to interact so that aircraft can safely and efficiently
travel from one place to another. This appendix has, thus far, discussed the various components
of the NAS, but will now detail how these systems interact. An aircraft traveling from one place
to another goes through three phases of flight: departure (takeoff), en route (cruise), and arrival
(landing); during each of these phases, different components of the NAS are used. Noise
abatement procedures are also used at some airports, and are integrated with the ATC system and
routes assigned to aircraft.
Departure Phase
An aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan will receive an ATC clearance, specifying the air
routes and initial altitudes that are to be used on the flight. The clearance may come in the form
of a departure procedure (DP). A DP is a standardized ATC departure procedure, containing a
group of procedures that would otherwise be transmitted piece by piece, used at certain airports
to simplify clearance delivery procedures. As discussed earlier, many busy airports have a
systematic and coordinated arrival and departure flow. As a result, many aircraft may receive
the same clearance to depart from the airport and transition to the en route portion of their flight;
a DP permits the controller to relay this clearance simply and quickly without having to repeat
the information for every flight. The ATCT will transmit this clearance to the pilot, and will also
give clearance for the aircraft to taxi to the runway. The ATCT will also give clearance for the
aircraft to takeoff.
Shortly after takeoff, the aircraft is handed off to the TRACON. The TRACON acquires the
aircraft on radar, and the pilot switches radio frequencies. The TRACON controller will vector
the aircraft to follow a specific course or to avoid other air traffic, and will give it instructions to
climb to certain altitudes. The TRACON directs the aircraft to a specific departure gate, which is
a designated area of airspace where the aircraft is handed off to the ARTCC.
En Route Phase
By definition, the en route system of air traffic control is that part of the system devoted to
controlling IFR aircraft between the terminal area of origination and the terminal area of
destination. For this study, the term “en route system” includes all routes and procedures 3,000
feet and higher. This definition is consistent with the definition of airport traffic areas and
environmental review procedures. The “roof” of the airport traffic area is 3,000 feet above
ground level (AGL). FAA Order 1050.1D establishes 3,000 feet AGL as the altitude above
which changes in en route procedures, airport approach procedures and airport departure
procedures are normally categorically excluded from the requirement for an environmental
assessment (EA) or environmental impact statement (EIS).
The pilot of the aircraft will initially contact the ARTCC by switching to another discrete radio
frequency, and the ARTCC will detect the aircraft on its long-range radar. ARTCC will vector
and direct aircraft so that it is adequately separated from other air traffic, and will direct the
aircraft along its assigned route. The route will consist of a combination of VORs, airways,
fixes, and radar vectors. The ARTCC will also direct the aircraft to climb to its cruise altitude.
The aircraft will be handed off to different sectors and ARTCCs as it traverses along the route
towards its destination.
Arrival Phase
When the aircraft comes within a couple hundred miles of its destination, the ARTCC will direct
it to begin a descent to a specified lower altitude. The aircraft may be routed using a standard
terminal arrival route (STAR). A STAR is very similar to a DP; it contains a group of
procedures, including routes and fixes, to be used by the aircraft as it approaches the airport.
Like a DP, a STAR is intended to simplify clearance delivery procedures.
The ARTCC will direct the aircraft along a route (and to an arrival gate) used to funnel traffic
into a specific airport when using a given north, south, east, or west flow. The controllers at the
ARTCC merge aircraft along these routes, and provide sequencing and adequate separation from
other air traffic. They will then transfer control of the aircraft to the appropriate TRACON at the
arrival gate. This transfer is usually completed within approximately 20 nautical miles of the
destination airport.
After the TRACON controllers establish communication with the aircraft, they provide approach
control services by instructing the pilot to fly along specific routes, using fixes, NAVAIDS, and
vectors. During IMC conditions, the TRACON will also direct the aircraft to an instrument
approach for landing at the destination airport.
The TRACON will often route the aircraft to the airport using a local traffic pattern. The pattern
is used by aircraft operating to and from an airport, to ensure that all aircraft use similar
procedures and follow similar routes to and from the runways. If at all possible, aircraft should
land and takeoff into the prevailing wind. This reduces takeoff and landing distance, and also
helps to create an orderly traffic flow. The terminology used to describe the different legs of the
traffic pattern are based upon the leg position relative to the direction of the prevailing wind and
the runway. An aircraft taking off is flying into the wind, and hence the leg is known as the
“upwind” leg. An aircraft that is flying perpendicular to the wind, on the departure side of the
runway, is on the “crosswind” leg of the pattern. An aircraft flying parallel and towards the
arrival end of the runway is on the “downwind” leg. The “base” leg is also perpendicular to the
prevailing wind, and is intended as a “base” as the aircraft begins it approach for landing on the
runway. The last leg, when the aircraft is aligned with the runway for landing, is known as
“final.” For jet airline traffic, the traffic pattern is usually fairly “wide,” meaning it is flown
several miles away from the airport. During IMC conditions, the pattern flown may be very
wide, and pattern legs are used mainly to describe the aircraft’s relative position to the airport.
The TRACON hands the aircraft off to the airport’s ATCT when it is within approximately five
to 10 nautical miles of the airport, or when the ATCT has visual contact with the aircraft. The
ATCT gives the aircraft final clearance to land, and the aircraft safely completes it flights using
the various components of the NAS
Ahmed Motamed- مـــــــديـــــر
- عدد الرسائل : 123
العمر : 36
تاريخ التسجيل : 04/05/2008
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